Title: .Biology Semester 2 / Animal Transport
Tags: transport blood definition

In multicellular organisms the surface area to volume ratio is small and high activity levels mean a high demand for oxygen
However diffusion is too slow and distance is too great to transport oxygen and nutrients to and remove carbon dioxide and waste products from tissues

Q: Name 5 features of an efficient transport system
A: • A fluid/medium to carry nutrients and O₂
• A pump to create pressure to push fluid around the body
• Exchange surfaces to enable O₂ and nutrients to enter and exit blood
• Tubes and vessels
• Two circuits, one to pick up O₂ and one to deliver to tissues

Q: Describe the difference between an open and a closed circulatory system
A: In an open system the blood is not always in the vessels; circulates through body cavity directly bathing cells
In a closed circulatory system the blood is always maintained in the vessels

Q: Why is an open circulatory system not sufficient to meet the needs of mammals?
A: • Larger organisms, more metabolically active, increases need for O₂ and CO₂ transport
• low pressure means slow flow
• body parts such as muscles deprived of oxygen

Q: How do mammals circulate blood?
A: • Blood maintained inside vessels
• Heart pumps blood at higher pressure
• Extracellular fluid which enables heart to pump

Q: In a single circulatory system the blood passes through the heart [...] on each circuit of the body
After the blood passes to the body it goes [...] without [...]
A: once; straight to the respiratory organ; returning to the heart

Q: Fish have a [...] circulatory system
A: single

Fish only need a single circulatory system because:
• They are not as metabolically active as mammals and do not maintain their body temperature 
• Need less energy so a single circulatory system delivers enough O₂ and nutrients at an adequate speed

Q: In a double circulatory system the blood passes through the heart [...] on each [...]
A: twice; circuit

Two circulations in mammals
1. Systemic circulation
• Carries oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
• Higher pressure
3. Pulmonary circulation
• Carries blood to be oxygenated in the lungs
• Lower pressure

Q: Advantages of a Double Circulatory System
[...]
So
[...]
A: Heart increases blood pressure; Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients more quickly

Q: In a double circulatory system the blood pressure is increased by the heart [...] passing through the [...]
A: after; lungs

In some insects the action of the body muscles during movement may help to circulate the blood
In other animals there is a muscular pumping organ and the blood is pumped by peristalsis

Why do insects not need a closed circulatory system?
An open circulatory system is a sufficient method of transport because
• They are small- distance for blood to travel is short
• They do not rely on blood to transport carbon dioxide/O2, for this they have a separate transport system e.g. tracheae deliver air to respiratory organs

Q: Arteries carry blood [...] from the heart
A: away

Q: The [...] ventricle has the [...] [...]
A: LEFT; thickest; muscular wall

Sides of the heart:
Left
Oxygenated
Right
Deoxygenated

Q: Bottom of heart is called the [...]
A: apex

Q: Heart valve names
[...] is [...]
also known as [...] valve as separates atrium from ventrical
A: Rrrrrrright; trrrrrricuspid; atrioventricular

Q: Why are there valves on the spiracles of terrestrial insects?
A: Valves reduce diffusion of water vapour, preventing dehydration

Q: Water vapour moves by [...] not [...]
A: diffusion; osmosis

Gills create a countercurrent flow (water passing in opposite direction to blood) which maintains the diffusion gradient along the length of the gills. 
This efficiency means fish do not need a double circulation system

Q: The primary body cavity of invertibrates is called a [...]
A: haemocoel

Q: Describe what is meant by double circulatory system
A: Blood passes through heart twice per circuit
Once through pulmonary circuit
Once through systemic circuit

Q: Heart questions!
[...] / [...] / [...]
A: Force; pressure; distance

Q: Explain why muscular wall of left ventricle is thicker than the right
A: Left ventricle generates a greater force
to pump blood at higher pressure
A greater distance
around the systematic circuit

Q: Why is the muscular wall of the right ventricle thinner than the left?
A: Right ventricle generates a weaker force
to pump blood at a lower pressure
a smaller distance
around the pulmonary circuit

Q: What is the advantage of the lower pressure generated by the right ventricle?
A: Low pressure in pulmonary circuit means slower flow
Protects delicate alveoli from damage
Enables efficient gaseous exchange

Q: Explain why the walls of the atria are thinner and more elastic than the ventricles
A: Thinner because:
• generate less force
• to pump blood at a lower pressure
• a short distance from atria to ventricles
Elastic because
• atria stretch to accommodate incoming blood
• and recoil to original shape, forcing blood to ventricles through open atrioventricular valves

Q: Explain what is happening at A
A: • pressure in ventricles is exceeding pressure in atria
• Due to ventricular systole
• AV valves close (prevents back flow into atria)

Q: Explain what is happening at B
A: • Pressure in ventricles greater than pressure in aorta
• due to ventricular systole
• Semilunar valves open (blood flows from ventricles into aorta)

Q: What is happening at C?
A: • Pressure in aorta exceeds pressure in ventricles
• Due to ventricular diastole
• Semilunar valves close (preventing backflow of blood into ventricles)

Q: What is happening at D?
A: • Pressure in atria exceeds pressure in ventricles
• due to ventricular diastole
• atrioventricular valves open (blood flows from atria to ventricles)

Q: Explain how the insect gaseous exchange system provides a large surface area for gaseous exchange
A: • many tracheoles
• penetrate deep within tissues

Q: Suggest why spirals of chitin (a strong and supportive protein) line insect trachaea
A: • prevent collapse of channels due to air pressure changes

Q: Describe the structure and function of intercalated disks
A: • Tight junctions between cardiac muscle cells
• allows wave of excitation to pass rapidly between cells

Structure of cardiac muscle fibres
Intercalated disks:
Tight cell junctions
Allow wave of excitation to pass rapidly between cells
Cross bridges:
Add tensile strength
Gaps between cardiac muscle fibres:
Filled with connective tissue, high collagen content
Adds strength

Q: The contractions of cardiac muscle fibres are described as [...], since they are produced [...], without requiring [...]
A: myogenic; spontaneously; stimulation from nerve cells

Q: [...] is the heart's ability to set the pace for its own contractions
A: Intrinsic rhythmicity

Q: If 1 heart beat lasts 0.8 seconds
Pace = [...] = 75[...]
A: 60/0.8; bpm

Q: Define cardiac cycle
A: The sequence of events that occur during one heartbeat

Diastole
• Blood enters the left and right atria
• Pressure in the atria increases
• Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open slightly
• Blood starts to enter ventricles

Q: Atrial systole
• [...]
• [...]
• [...]
A: Walls of the atria contract; Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open fully; Blood from the atria is forced into the ventricles

Ventricular systole
• Ventricles contract
• Blood is forced into the pulmonary artery and the aorta 
• Semi-lunar valves open
• Atrio-ventricular valves are closed

Q: Diastole
• [...]
• [...]
A: Blood pressure in the arteries is greater than in the ventricles; Semi-lunar valves close to prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles

Q: [...] → [...] → [...]
Repeat
A: Diastole; atrial systole; ventricular systole

The sinoatrial node is a small patch of tissue that sends out waves of electrical excitation at regular intervals to initiate contractions.
It is the pacemaker

The atrioventricular node is another node located at the top of the septum separating the two ventricles
This tissue picks up the wave of excitation and conducts it to a specialised conducting tissue called the purkyne tissue

The purkyne tissue runs down the septum to the APEX and allows the wave of excitation to spread up the walls of the ventricles

Q: Define stroke volume
A: Total volume of blood forced out of the heart on each heartbeat

Q: [...] x [...] = [...]
A: Stroke volume; heart rate; cardiac output

Q: [...] = [...]
A: Stroke volume x heart rate; cardiac output

Q: [...] / [...] = [...]
A: Cardiac output; heart rate; stroke volume

Q: Irregular heartbeat = [...]
A: arrhythmia

Q: Slow heartbeat: [...]
A: bradycardia

Q: Fast heartbeat = [...]
A: tachycardia

Q: If heartbeat is not coordinated = [...] indicated by [...]
A: fibrillation; small and unclear P waves

Q: Heart attack = [...]
Indicated by [...]
A: myocardial infarction; elevation of the ST section

Q: [...] = [...]
Indicated by [...]
A: Enlarged or increased muscle thickness; hypertrophy; a deep S wave

Q: What does ECG stand for?
A: Electro cardio gram
Electrocardiogram

Q: The [...] is a [...] which lines all [...]
A: endothelium; single thin layer of cells; blood and lymph vessels

Q: Name one adaptation of the endothelium
A: Smooth so reduces friction with flowing blood

Q: [...] is the [...]
A: Plasma; fluid component of the blood

Q: How many red blood cells are in the blood per cubic millimetre?
A: 5,000,000
Five million

Original: 1. [[oc1::Biconcave disc (flat and indented on both faces)]] [[oc2::gives large surface area for rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen]]
2. [[oc3::Anucleate, no organelles (respiration is anaerobic)]] [[oc4::to provide a large internal volume for maximum haemoglobin]]
3. [[oc5::Small - 7um]] [[oc6::so haemoglobin is never far from cell membrane so short diffusion pathway for oxygen and CO_2]]
Title: Structure and function of RBC
Q: 1. [...] ...
2. ... ...
3. ... ...
A: Bioconcave disc (flat and indented on both faces)
Q: 1. Bioconcave disc (flat and indented on both faces) [...]
2. ... ...
3. ... ...
A: gives large surface area for rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen
Q: 1. ... gives large surface area for rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen
2. [...] ...
3. ... ...
A: Anucleate, no organelles (respiration is anaerobic)
Q: 1. ... ...
2. Anucleate, no organelles (respiration is anaerobic) [...]
3. ... ...
A: to provide a large internal volume for maximum haemoglobin
Q: 1. ... ...
2. ... to provide a large internal volume for maximum haemoglobin
3. [...] ...
A: Small - 7um
Q: 1. ... ...
2. ... ...
3. Small - 7um [...]
A: so haemoglobin is never far from cell membrane so short diffusion pathway for oxygen and CO_2
1. Bioconcave disc (flat and indented on both faces) gives large surface area for rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen
2. Anucleate, no organelles (respiration is anaerobic) to provide a large internal volume for maximum haemoglobin
3. Small - 7um so haemoglobin is never far from cell membrane so short diffusion pathway for oxygen and CO_2
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Q: In high oxygen concentrations, e.g. lungs, [...]
In lower oxygen concentrations, e.g. blood vessels, [...]
A: oxygen readily binds to haemoglobin; haemoglobin readily gives up the oxygen

Q: White blood cells includes [...]
Fewer in number than red blood cells - [...]
A: all blood cells that are not red; 6,000 per cubic millimetre

Q: Phagocytes
Structure
[...]
Function
[...]
A: Granular cytoplasm, lobed nucleus; Destroy invading microorganisms by phagocytosis

Lymphocyte
Structure
Non granular cytoplasm
Round, large nucleus- almost fills whole cell
Function
Produces antibodies
Destroys infected cells

The enzyme that catalyses the reaction of CO_2 and H_2O in red blood cells is carbonic anhydrase
It forms carbonic acid which dissociates into hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO_3^-) and hydrogen ions, the main form in which CO_2 is transported

Red blood cells
Also known as erythrocytes
Caused by pigment haemoglobin
In utero made in the liver, by birth made in the bone marrow of long bones e.g. humerus

Q: Haemoglobin + oxygen = [...]
A: oxyhaemoglobin
Extra: Oxy-Hb

The tendency of haemoglobin to associate or dissociate with oxygen depends on the partial pressure of oxygen in the surrounding tissues
Also called pO₂ or oxygen tension, it is measured in units of pressure, kPa

Q: Define partial pressure of oxygen
A: The relative pressure that oxygen contributes to a mixture of gases

Q: Taking up oxygen
• [...]
• [...]
• As such, [...]
A: Oxygen is absorbed into blood in alveoli; Diffuses into blood plasma and then enters red blood cells where it associates with haemoglobin; oxygen is removed from solution so diffusion gradient is maintained for continued diffusion of oxygen

Q: The [...] shows [...]
A: oxygen dissociation curve; the behaviour of haemoglobin at different partial pressures of oxygen

In lungs, oxygen has high partial pressure, so is picked up by haemoglobin 
In tissues, oxygen is at low partial pressure, so oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and oxygen is released into the tissues

Foetal haemoglobin dissociation curve
Foetus obtains oxygen from blood in the placenta
Placenta has low partial pressure of oxygen, pO₂  compared with the lungs
Therefore:
Foetal haemoglobin has adapted a greater affinity for oxygen, enabling it to pick up enough oxygen to supply its tissues in conditions with lower oxygen tension
Therefore, the foetal haemoglobin dissociation curve lies to the left of the adult curve

The Bohr Effect
An increase in carbon dioxide or acidity causes haemoglobin to release oxygen more readily
This occurs when metabolic rate of tissue is higher
Therefore the additional release of oxygen by haemoglobin allows higher rates of aerobic respiration to continue

Original: LOCATION
[[oc1::Lymph in lymph vessels, tissue fluid in tissues]]
CONTENT
1. [[oc2::concentration of Lymphocytes higher in lymph as they are produced in lymph nodes]]
2. [[oc3::concentration of Antibodies higher in lymph as produced by lymphocytes]]
3. [[oc4::Higher lipid concentration in lymph as digested lipids are absorbed from villi into the intestinal villi lacteals (type of lymph vessel)]]
Title: Describe and explain two differences between tissue fluid and lymph
Q: LOCATION
[...]
CONTENT
1. ...
2. ...
3. ...
A: Lymph in lymph vessels, tissue fluid in tissues
Q: LOCATION
Lymph in lymph vessels, tissue fluid in tissues
CONTENT
1. [...]
2. ...
3. ...
A: concentration of Lymphocytes higher in lymph as they are produced in lymph nodes
Q: LOCATION
...
CONTENT
1. concentration of Lymphocytes higher in lymph as they are produced in lymph nodes
2. [...]
3. ...
A: concentration of Antibodies higher in lymph as produced by lymphocytes
Q: LOCATION
...
CONTENT
1. ...
2. concentration of Antibodies higher in lymph as produced by lymphocytes
3. [...]
A: Higher lipid concentration in lymph as digested lipids are absorbed from villi into the intestinal villi lacteals (type of lymph vessel)
LOCATION
Lymph in lymph vessels, tissue fluid in tissues
CONTENT
1. concentration of Lymphocytes higher in lymph as they are produced in lymph nodes
2. concentration of Antibodies higher in lymph as produced by lymphocytes
3. Higher lipid concentration in lymph as digested lipids are absorbed from villi into the intestinal villi lacteals (type of lymph vessel)
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Original: LOCATION
[[oc1::Blood plasma in blood vessels, lymph in lymph vessels]]
CONTENT
1. [[oc2::Blood plasma contains:
    - Red blood cells
    - Large plasma proteins
    - Platelets]]
    [[oc3::Tissue fluid does not; they are too large to squeeze through capillary pores.]]
Title: Describe and explain two differences between blood plasma and lymph
Q: LOCATION
[...]
CONTENT
1. ...
    ...
A: Blood plasma in blood vessels, lymph in lymph vessels
Q: LOCATION
Blood plasma in blood vessels, lymph in lymph vessels
CONTENT
1. [...]
    ...
A: Blood plasma contains:
    - Red blood cells
    - Large plasma proteins
    - Platelets
Q: LOCATION
...
CONTENT
1. Blood plasma contains:
    - Red blood cells
    - Large plasma proteins
    - Platelets
    [...]
A: Tissue fluid does not; they are too large to squeeze through capillary pores.
Q: LOCATION
[...]
CONTENT
1. [...]
    [...]
A: Blood plasma in blood vessels, lymph in lymph vessels; Blood plasma contains:
    - Red blood cells
    - Large plasma proteins
    - Platelets; Tissue fluid does not; they are too large to squeeze through capillary pores.
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Original: In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is [[oc1::high due to the contraction of the muscle of the left ventricle of the heart]]
This [[oc2::forces fluid out of capillary]]
There is also [[oc3::hydrostatic pressure in tissue fluid which tends to push fluid back into the capillaries]]
Overall, [[oc4::higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary forces water and dissolved molecules out of the capillary pores]]
Title: At the arterial end of the capillary ...
Q: In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is [...]
This ...
There is also ...
Overall, ...
A: high due to the contraction of the muscle of the left ventricle of the heart
Q: In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is high due to the contraction of the muscle of the left ventricle of the heart
This [...]
There is also ...
Overall, ...
A: forces fluid out of capillary
Q: In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is ...
This forces fluid out of capillary
There is also [...]
Overall, ...
A: hydrostatic pressure in tissue fluid which tends to push fluid back into the capillaries
Q: In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is ...
This ...
There is also hydrostatic pressure in tissue fluid which tends to push fluid back into the capillaries
Overall, [...]
A: higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary forces water and dissolved molecules out of the capillary pores
In capillary, hydrostatic (blood) pressure is high due to the contraction of the muscle of the left ventricle of the heart
This forces fluid out of capillary
There is also hydrostatic pressure in tissue fluid which tends to push fluid back into the capillaries
Overall, higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary forces water and dissolved molecules out of the capillary pores
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Original: Plasma proteins [[oc1::remain in the capillaries as they are too large to pass through the capillary pores]]
Therefore [[oc2::the water potential of blood plasma is lower than the water potential of tissue fluid]]
Small osmotic pressure exerts pressure to [[oc3::move water into the blood by osmosis down the water potential gradient]]
Title: Water potential at arterial end...
Q: Plasma proteins [...]
Therefore ...
Small osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: remain in the capillaries as they are too large to pass through the capillary pores
Q: Plasma proteins remain in the capillaries as they are too large to pass through the capillary pores
Therefore [...]
Small osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: the water potential of blood plasma is lower than the water potential of tissue fluid
Q: Plasma proteins ...
Therefore the water potential of blood plasma is lower than the water potential of tissue fluid
Small osmotic pressure exerts pressure to [...]
A: move water into the blood by osmosis down the water potential gradient
Q: Plasma proteins [...]
Therefore [...]
Small osmotic pressure exerts pressure to [...]
A: remain in the capillaries as they are too large to pass through the capillary pores; the water potential of blood plasma is lower than the water potential of tissue fluid; move water into the blood by osmosis down the water potential gradient
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Original: Higher [[oc1::hydrostatic pressure in capillary than in tissue fluid, pushing fluid OUT]]
Lower [[oc2::osmotic pressure in blood than tissue fluid, pushing fluid IN]]
However [[oc3::the overall hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure]]
Therefore [[oc4::fluid moves OUT of the capillary at arterial end]]
Title: Overall effect at arterial end...
Q: Higher [...]
Lower ...
However ...
Therefore ...
A: hydrostatic pressure in capillary than in tissue fluid, pushing fluid OUT
Q: Higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary than in tissue fluid, pushing fluid OUT
Lower [...]
However ...
Therefore ...
A: osmotic pressure in blood than tissue fluid, pushing fluid IN
Q: Higher ...
Lower osmotic pressure in blood than tissue fluid, pushing fluid IN
However [...]
Therefore ...
A: the overall hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure
Q: Higher ...
Lower ...
However the overall hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure
Therefore [...]
A: fluid moves OUT of the capillary at arterial end
Higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary than in tissue fluid, pushing fluid OUT
Lower osmotic pressure in blood than tissue fluid, pushing fluid IN
However the overall hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure
Therefore fluid moves OUT of the capillary at arterial end
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Original: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is [[oc1::much lower than at arterial end]] and small [[oc2::hydrostatic pressure still exerted by tissue fluid]]
Water potential in capillary is [[oc3::lower in blood of capillary than in the tissue fluid]] due to [[oc4::large plasma proteins remaining in smaller volume of blood plasma]]; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to [[oc5::move water back into capillary]]
Title: Conditions at the venous end of capillary...
Q: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is [...] and small ...
Water potential in capillary is ... due to ...; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: much lower than at arterial end
Q: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is much lower than at arterial end and small [...]
Water potential in capillary is ... due to ...; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: hydrostatic pressure still exerted by tissue fluid
Q: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is ... and small hydrostatic pressure still exerted by tissue fluid
Water potential in capillary is [...] due to ...; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: lower in blood of capillary than in the tissue fluid
Q: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is ... and small ...
Water potential in capillary is lower in blood of capillary than in the tissue fluid due to [...]; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to ...
A: large plasma proteins remaining in smaller volume of blood plasma
Q: Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is ... and small ...
Water potential in capillary is ... due to large plasma proteins remaining in smaller volume of blood plasma; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to [...]
A: move water back into capillary
Capillary's hydrostatic pressure is much lower than at arterial end and small hydrostatic pressure still exerted by tissue fluid
Water potential in capillary is lower in blood of capillary than in the tissue fluid due to large plasma proteins remaining in smaller volume of blood plasma; osmotic pressure exerts pressure to move water back into capillary
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Original: Small difference in [[oc2::hydrostatic pressure]]
High [[oc3::osmotic pressure]] to push water into [[oc4::blood vessel]]
Therefore [[oc1::fluid moves INTO capillary at venous end]]
Title: Overall effect of pressures at the venous end...
Q: Small difference in ...
High ... to push water into ...
Therefore [...]
A: fluid moves INTO capillary at venous end
Q: Small difference in [...]
High ... to push water into ...
Therefore fluid moves INTO capillary at venous end
A: hydrostatic pressure
Q: Small difference in hydrostatic pressure
High [...] to push water into ...
Therefore ...
A: osmotic pressure
Q: Small difference in ...
High osmotic pressure to push water into [...]
Therefore ...
A: blood vessel
Small difference in hydrostatic pressure
High osmotic pressure to push water into blood vessel
Therefore fluid moves INTO capillary at venous end
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Q: What is the biological significance of the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures of blood vessels?
A: They enable water and dissolved waste materials
that have left the cells
to return to the blood

Oedema
Lack of dietry protein means fewer dissolved blood plasma proteins
Water potential of blood plasma is higher
Less water moves back into capillaries from tissue fluid down water potential gradient
Therefore fluid collects in tissues

Q: Name differences between veins and lymph vessels
A: End point of vessels; veins return to heart, lymph vessels return to subclavian vein
Origin of pressure
in veins is ventricular systole;
in lymph vessels caused by hydrostatic pressure present in tissues due to tissue fluid formation

Q: Why are pressure changes in aorta greater than those in arterioles?
A: Aorta is closer to the left ventricle
Aorta has elastic tissue which allows it to stretch and recoil

Q: Draw a peptide bond being formed, name type of reaction
A: Condensation