Title: .Biology Semester 2 / Kidneys
Tags: kidneys

Q: Define excretion
A: The removal of toxic waste products from metabolism

Q: Name the two groups of biological molecules that break down to form nitrogenous waste products
A: Proteins and nucleic acids

Draw the molecular structure of urea

Q: [...] is the process by which [...]
A: Deamination; urea is made from excess amino acids

Original: The [[oc4::Orthinine]] Cycle
During [[oc1::amination]], the [[oc1::amino]] group from amino acids is removed, added to a [[oc1::hydrogen]], to form [[oc1::ammonia]]
This then combines with [[oc2::CO_2]] to form [[oc2::urea]]
During amination, the amino group from amino acids is removed, added to a hydrogen, to form ammonia
This then combines with ... to form ...
Q: During amination, the amino group from amino acids is removed, added to a hydrogen, to form ammonia
This then combines with [...] to form [...]
A: CO_2; urea
During amination, the amino group from amino acids is removed, added to a hydrogen, to form ammonia
This then combines with CO_2 to form urea
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Q: Why are excess amino acids not excreted?
A: They contain almost as much energyas carbohydrates; it would be wasteful

Q: What happens to the rest of the amino acid (Keto acid) after the amine group is removed?
A: Used in respiration for energy
or
Converted to carbohydrate or fat for energy storage

Q: What is an amino acid called when the amine group is removed?
A: Keto acid

Q: Why is ammonia excreted in fish?
A: They live in water
Water dilutes the ammonia as it is excreted, reduces toxicity

Q: Why do birds excrete uric acid?
A: It is lightweight
It is non-toxic so can build up in bird eggs without damaging embryo

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: MEDULLA; Inner region made of the loops of Henle and collecting ducts

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: RENAL PELVIS; Collects urine and funnels it to ureter

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: RENAL ARTERY; Supplies kidney with oxygenated blood from aorta

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: RENAL CORTEX; Outer region of kidney, contains Bowman's capsule and convoluted tubules

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: RENAL VEIN; Returns blood to heart via vena cava

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: URETER; Tube that carries urine to the bladder

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: FIBROUS CAPSULE of KIDNEY; Protective outer membrane

Q: Structure: [...]
Description: [...]
A: NEPHRON; Basic structural and functional unit of the kidney

Bowman's Capsule
Shape: cup shaped
Location in kidney: cortex
Contains: glomerulus (mass of capillaries)
Lined by: podocytes

Q: Podocytes
Structure:
[...]
[...]
Function:
[...]
A: Cells with finger-like projections lining Bowman's capsule; Gaps between them; Filter small molecules out of the blood

Original: Structure: [[oc1::twisted tubule]]
Location in nephron: [[oc2::Just after Bowman's capsule]]
Location in kidney: [[oc3::cortex]]
Surrounded by: [[oc4::network of capillaries]]
Walls made of: [[oc5::cuboidal epithelial cells with microvili to increase surface area]]
Title: Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Q: Structure: [...]
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
Walls made of: ...
A: twisted tubule
Q: Structure: twisted tubule
Location in nephron: [...]
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
Walls made of: ...
A: Just after Bowman's capsule
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: Just after Bowman's capsule
Location in kidney: [...]
Surrounded by: ...
Walls made of: ...
A: cortex
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: cortex
Surrounded by: [...]
Walls made of: ...
A: network of capillaries
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: network of capillaries
Walls made of: [...]
A: cuboidal epithelial cells with microvili to increase surface area
Structure: twisted tubule
Location in nephron: Just after Bowman's capsule
Location in kidney: cortex
Surrounded by: network of capillaries
Walls made of: cuboidal epithelial cells with microvili to increase surface area
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Original: Structure: [[oc1::long hairpin loop]]
Location in nephron: [[oc2::after the proximal convoluted tubule]]
Location in kidney: [[oc3::starts and ends in cortex, descending and ascending loops in the medulla]]
Surrounded by: [[oc4::dense network of capillaries]]
Title: The loop of Henle
Q: Structure: [...]
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
A: long hairpin loop
Q: Structure: long hairpin loop
Location in nephron: [...]
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
A: after the proximal convoluted tubule
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: after the proximal convoluted tubule
Location in kidney: [...]
Surrounded by: ...
A: starts and ends in cortex, descending and ascending loops in the medulla
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: starts and ends in cortex, descending and ascending loops in the medulla
Surrounded by: [...]
A: dense network of capillaries
Structure: long hairpin loop
Location in nephron: after the proximal convoluted tubule
Location in kidney: starts and ends in cortex, descending and ascending loops in the medulla
Surrounded by: dense network of capillaries
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Original: Structure: [[oc1::twisted tube]]
Location in nephron: [[oc2::after the loop of Henle]]
Location in kidney: [[oc3::cortex]]
Surrounded by: [[oc4::dense network of capillaries]]
Joins to a [[oc5::collecting duct]]
Title: Distal convoluted tubule
Q: Structure: [...]
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
Joins to a ...
A: twisted tube
Q: Structure: twisted tube
Location in nephron: [...]
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: ...
Joins to a ...
A: after the loop of Henle
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: after the loop of Henle
Location in kidney: [...]
Surrounded by: ...
Joins to a ...
A: cortex
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: cortex
Surrounded by: [...]
Joins to a ...
A: dense network of capillaries
Q: Structure: ...
Location in nephron: ...
Location in kidney: ...
Surrounded by: dense network of capillaries
Joins to a [...]
A: collecting duct
Structure: twisted tube
Location in nephron: after the loop of Henle
Location in kidney: cortex
Surrounded by: dense network of capillaries
Joins to a collecting duct
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Original: Location in the nephron: [[oc1::connected to many distal convoluted tubules]]
Location in kidney: [[oc2::Extends from cortex into medulla]]
Function: [[oc3::Carries urine to the renal pelvis]]
Title: Collecting ducts
Q: Location in the nephron: [...]
Location in kidney: ...
Function: ...
A: connected to many distal convoluted tubules
Q: Location in the nephron: connected to many distal convoluted tubules
Location in kidney: [...]
Function: ...
A: Extends from cortex into medulla
Q: Location in the nephron: ...
Location in kidney: Extends from cortex into medulla
Function: [...]
A: Carries urine to the renal pelvis
Q: Location in the nephron: [...]
Location in kidney: [...]
Function: [...]
A: connected to many distal convoluted tubules; Extends from cortex into medulla; Carries urine to the renal pelvis
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Original: [[oc1::Renal artery]] → [[oc2::afferent arteriole]] → [[oc3::glomerulus]] → [[oc4::efferent arteriole]] → [[oc5::dense network of capillaries (around PCT, LoH, DCT)]] → [[oc6::renal vein]]
Title: Nephron blood supply
Q: [...] → ... → ... → ... → ... → ...
A: Renal artery
Q: Renal artery → [...] → ... → ... → ... → ...
A: afferent arteriole
Q: ... → afferent arteriole → [...] → ... → ... → ...
A: glomerulus
Q: ... → ... → glomerulus → [...] → ... → ...
A: efferent arteriole
Q: ... → ... → ... → efferent arteriole → [...] → ...
A: dense network of capillaries (around PCT, LoH, DCT)
Q: ... → ... → ... → ... → dense network of capillaries (around PCT, LoH, DCT) → [...]
A: renal vein
Renal artery → afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole → dense network of capillaries (around PCT, LoH, DCT) → renal vein
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The afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent afteriole
Ensures blood pressure inside glomerulus is high to aid ultrafiltration

Q: Name the two stages to the formation of urine in the kidney
A: Ultrafiltration
Selective reabsorption

Q: Explain how large molecules can leave the blood in the glomerulus capillaries with little resistance
A: Endothelial cells in glomerulus capillaries have finestrae (gaps) between them

Q: What is the name and function of the yellow section?
A: Glomerular basement membrane
Only allows certain sized molecules to pass into Bowman's capsule lumen: acts as a filter

Original: Location in nephron: [[oc1::line the wall of the renal capsule]]
Structure: [[oc2::finger-like projections and fenestrae]]
Function: [[oc3::Thurd filtration barrier. Allows molecules to pass through fenestrae rather than diffuse through cells; reduces resistance]]
Title: Podocytes
Q: Location in nephron: [...]
Structure: ...
Function: ...
A: line the wall of the renal capsule
Q: Location in nephron: line the wall of the renal capsule
Structure: [...]
Function: ...
A: finger-like projections and fenestrae
Q: Location in nephron: ...
Structure: finger-like projections and fenestrae
Function: [...]
A: Allows molecules to pass through fenestrae rather than diffuse through cells; reduces resistance
Q: Location in nephron: [...]
Structure: [...]
Function: [...]
A: line the wall of the renal capsule; finger-like projections and fenestrae; Allows molecules to pass through fenestrae rather than diffuse through cells; reduces resistance
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Glomerular filtration rate
Rate of movement of fluid from the blood in the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule
Usually about 125cm^3min^-1

Q: What makes the glomerular filtration rate so fast?
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: Water potential gradient; Hydrostatic pressure; Solute concentration

Q: Why is there a high hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus?
[...]
A: Afferent arteriole is wider than efferent arteriole

Q: Name one molecule that cannot leave the blood in the glomerular capillaries, and why, and what effect this has
A: Plasma proteins; too large; means water potential of glomerular capillaries is lower than renal capsule

Q: Describe the opposing pressures and the overall flow of fluid in Bowman's capsule
A: 1. Hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries > hydrostatic pressure in capsule; pushes water into capsule
2. Water potential in glomerular capilleries < Water potential in capsule; osmotic pressure is pushing water into glomerulus
Overall, hydrostatic pressure out of capillaries > osmotic pressure/hydrostatic pressure into capillaries
FLUID MOVES OUT

Q: Most [...] takes place in the [...]
A: selective reabsorbtion; proximal convoluted tubule

Q: Movement of substances from blood into nephron: [...]
Movement of substances from nephron into blood: [...]
A: secretion; selective reabsorbtion

Structure and function of a PCT epithelial cell
Shape: cuboidal
Function: space for mitochondria
Membrane feature: microvilli
Function: increase surface area for diffusion
Contain a lot of: mitochondria
Function: generate energy for active transport for reabsorbtion

Original: Detection: receptors called [[oc1::osmoreceptors]] in the [[oc2::hypothalamus]] detect when [[oc3::water potential of blood is low]]
Cell signalling: they stimulate [[oc4::neurosecretory cells]] in the [[oc5::hypothalamus]] to release [[oc6::ADH]] - [[oc7::antidiuretic hormone]] - which moves to the [[oc8::posterior pituitary gland]] and is released into the blood
Effectors: [[oc9::ADH]] binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells [[oc10::lining collecting duct]], activate a [[oc11::phosphorylase enzyme]], and [[oc12::aquaporins]] fuse with [[oc13::plasma membrane]], increasing duct's [[oc14::permeability to water]]
Change: Water moves [[oc15::out]] of collecting duct by [[oc16::osmosis]] into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more [[oc17::concentrated]]
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, [[oc18::ADH inhibited]]
Title: OSMOREGULATION
Q: Detection: receptors called [...] in the hypothalamus detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: osmoreceptors
Q: Detection: receptors called [...] in the [...] detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ADH - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: osmoreceptors; hypothalamus
Q: Detection: receptors called [...] in the [...] detect when [...]
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: osmoreceptors; hypothalamus; water potential of blood is low
Q: Detection: receptors called osmoreceptors in the [...] detect when [...]
Cell signalling: they stimulate [...] in the hypothalamus to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: hypothalamus; water potential of blood is low; neurosecretory cells
Q: Detection: receptors called osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect when [...]
Cell signalling: they stimulate [...] in the [...] to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: water potential of blood is low; neurosecretory cells; hypothalamus
Q: Detection: receptors called osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate [...] in the [...] to release [...] - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: neurosecretory cells; hypothalamus; ADH
Q: Detection: receptors called osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the [...] to release [...] - [...] - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: hypothalamus; ADH; antidiuretic hormone
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the hypothalamus detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release [...] - [...] - which moves to the [...] and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with ..., increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: ADH; antidiuretic hormone; posterior pituitary gland
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ADH - [...] - which moves to the [...] and is released into the blood
Effectors: [...] binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's ...
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: antidiuretic hormone; posterior pituitary gland; ADH
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the [...] and is released into the blood
Effectors: [...] binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells [...], activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves ... of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: posterior pituitary gland; ADH; lining collecting duct
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the hypothalamus to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: [...] binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells [...], activate a [...], and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by ... into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: ADH; lining collecting duct; phosphorylase enzyme
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells [...], activate a [...], and [...] fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more ...
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: lining collecting duct; phosphorylase enzyme; aquaporins
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a [...], and [...] fuse with [...], increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ...
A: phosphorylase enzyme; aquaporins; plasma membrane
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and [...] fuse with [...], increasing duct's [...]
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ADH inhibited
A: aquaporins; plasma membrane; permeability to water
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with [...], increasing duct's [...]
Change: Water moves [...] of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ADH inhibited
A: plasma membrane; permeability to water; out
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's [...]
Change: Water moves [...] of collecting duct by [...] into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ADH inhibited
A: permeability to water; out; osmosis
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves [...] of collecting duct by [...] into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more [...]
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ADH inhibited
A: out; osmosis; concentrated
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by [...] into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more [...]
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, [...]
A: osmosis; concentrated; ADH inhibited
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more [...]
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, [...]
A: concentrated; ADH inhibited
Q: Detection: receptors called ... in the ... detect when ...
Cell signalling: they stimulate ... in the ... to release ... - ... - which moves to the ... and is released into the blood
Effectors: ... binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells ..., activate a ..., and ... fuse with ..., increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, [...]
A: ADH inhibited
Detection: receptors called osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect when water potential of blood is low
Cell signalling: they stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to release ADH - antidiuretic hormone - which moves to the posterior pituitary gland and is released into the blood
Effectors: ADH binds to receptors in plasma membrane of cells lining collecting duct, activate a phosphorylase enzyme, and aquaporins fuse with plasma membrane, increasing duct's permeability to water
Change: Water moves out of collecting duct by osmosis into the blood vessels. Urine becomes more concentrated
Once water potential of blood returns to within normal set limits, ADH inhibited
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Q: The material that acts as a filter in dialysis is [...]
A: cellulose

Q: A dialysis solution contains:
- [...]
- [...]
A: No urea; A similar concentration of ions and glucose as the blood

Q: Dialysis fluid is also known as [...]
A: dialysate

Q: Dialysate is constantly [...] meaning the [...] of urea/undesirable solutes is maintained
A: replaced; concentration gradient

2 types of dialysis
haemodialysis - blood exits body to be filtered
Peritoneal dialysis - blood filtered within peritoneum, semipermeable membrane surrounding intestine

Q: Haemoglobin - iron = [...]
A: bilirubin

Q: Capillary that follows loop of henle is called the [...]
A: vasa recta

Q: Fluid that moves from glomerulus into Bowman's capsule is called [...]
A: glomerular filtrate

Q: Loop of Henle is made up of the [...] and the [...]
A: descending limb; ascending limb

Q: Loop of [...] = [...]
A: HHHHHHHHHHenle; HHHHHHHHHHH₂O

Path of urea through the body
Starts in liver → hepatic vein → heart → renal artery → kidneys → bladder

Q: Ornithine cycle symplified:
[...]
A: 2NH_3 + CO_2 → urea + H_2O

Q: DCT controls [...]
A: salt balance

Q: Collecting duct controls urine [...]
A: concentration

Process of ultrafiltration
• Blood in glomerulus has very high HP because lumen of afferent arteriole wider than efferent arteriole and ventricular systole
• Blood plasma squeezed through fenestrations in glomerular endothelial cells
• Basement membrane made of collagen (strong under high pressure) and glycoproteins 
• Podocytes with pores and gaps between them
• Glomerular filtrate enters Bowman's capsule
Key: basement membrane is effective filter i.e. molecules with MR equal to or less than 69,000 can pass
Extra: Endothelial = particularly flat and smooth epithelial cells

Q: Name this tube!
A: Proximal convoluted tubule (has microvilli)

Q: Name this tube!
A: Loop of henle (no distinct membrane)

Q: Name this tube!
A: Collecting duct (distinct membrane sections)

Q: Name this tube!
A: Distal convoluted tubule (wider lumen and no microvilli)

Q: MAJOR [...]
A: RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATE

Q: Describe the the system created by the Loop of Henle
A: Countercurrent cross-multiplier system
boom

Original: 1. [[oc1::Cells lining PCT actively transport Na^+ to the blood]]
2. [[oc2::Na^+ carried away]]
3. [[oc3::This lowers the Na^+ inside the cells]]
4. [[oc4::Na^+ from filtrate diffuse into cell along concentration gradient via cotransport proteins carrying also glucose, amino acids etc]]
5. [[oc5::Solutes lower water potential as they move into the blood, therefore water follows by osmosis, carrying also urea]]
Title: Selective reabsorption from PCT
Q: 1. [...]
2. ...
3. ...
4. ...
5. ...
A: Cells lining PCT actively transport Na^+ to the blood
Q: 1. Cells lining PCT actively transport Na^+ to the blood
2. [...]
3. ...
4. ...
5. ...
A: Na^+ carried away
Q: 1. ...
2. Na^+ carried away
3. [...]
4. ...
5. ...
A: This lowers the Na^+ inside the cells
Q: 1. ...
2. ...
3. This lowers the Na^+ inside the cells
4. [...]
5. ...
A: Na^+ from filtrate diffuse into cell along concentration gradient via cotransport proteins carrying also glucose, amino acids etc
Q: 1. ...
2. ...
3. ...
4. Na^+ from filtrate diffuse into cell along concentration gradient via cotransport proteins carrying also glucose, amino acids etc
5. [...]
A: Solutes lower water potential as they move into the blood, therefore water follows by osmosis, carrying also urea
1. Cells lining PCT actively transport Na^+ to the blood
2. Na^+ carried away
3. This lowers the Na^+ inside the cells
4. Na^+ from filtrate diffuse into cell along concentration gradient via cotransport proteins carrying also glucose, amino acids etc
5. Solutes lower water potential as they move into the blood, therefore water follows by osmosis, carrying also urea
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Q: [...]% of water is reabsorbed into capillaries around PCT
A: 60-70

Q: When the PCT glucose + sodium cotransport proteins are not [...], they are below the [...] for glocose reabsorption
A: saturated; threshold value

Q: Suggest how desert animals are able to obtain water from eating seeds
A: Seeds contain starch which is broken down into glucose
During aerobic respiration of glucose, metabolic water is produced

Q: Explain the relationship between the length of the loop of Henle and the water potential of urine
A: Longer the loop, lower the water potential
Longer = more SA for active transport of Na^+ and Cl^- into medulla
Lowers water potential of medulla, water moves out of filtrate in collecting duct and descending limb by osmosis

Fistula: surgical connection between artery and vein
Cathater: tube inserted into the body

Q: Glucose enters liver cells from blood by [...] through [...]
A: facilitated diffusion; transport proteins